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There are elements of the Arthurian romance
in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland and Chretien de Troyes' Yvain . Both novels
incorporate important aspects or reoccurring themes in Arthurian
romances, including: the concept of a hero's (or heroine's) journey
into a magic "Other World," the importance of white
or otherwise uncommon animals,the importance an Otherworldly
queen, the importance of sacred springs or other bodies of water,
and the importance of chivalric values. The medieval romance
Yvainhas been firmly established as one of the first and
most enduring examples of Arthurian tradition, but the English
novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland has not been considered
in this light. Hopefully, the following analysis will provide
readers with a new outlook on Carroll's morality tale; his novel
appears to have been influenced by the same concepts that encompass
the Arthurian romance.
The most obvious similarity between Yvain and
the victorian novel Alice's Adventures
in Wonderland is the theme of a journey into a magic "Other
World" or land that outside of the boundaries of mortal
time and space. This theme is presented to the reader at the
very beginning of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland when
an unusual white rabbit leads Alice, the heroine, to Wonderland
(the Other World). She enters this strange world through a hole
in the ground; this concept of a sacred mound or hole as an entrance
into the Other World is an ancient Celtic mythological motif
that is often found in Arthurian romances. The reader recounts
her strange entrance into this alternate reality in the following
passage:
In another moment down went Alice after [the
rabbit], never once considering how in
theworld she was to get out again......Either
the well was very deep, or she fell very
slowly, for she had plenty of time as she
went down to look about her, and to wonder
what was going to happen next.
In Yvain, the hero journeys into the Other World when he performs
a magic ritual: "[He] poured / some water on the great green
stone. / The storm came, just as he had known / it would, with
gales of wind and rain" (li. 756-759) His entrance into
the magic Other World involves a sacred spring and his willing
participation in a magic ritual, whereas Alice's entrance is
purely accidental in nature. Another Celtic motif that is found
in both novels is the idea of white and otherwise uncommon animals
as a sign of Otherworldly presence. These animals tend to have
miraculous abilites and intelligence, and they usually lead the
hero or heroine to the Other World. In Alice's Adventures
in Wonderland, Alice immediately encounters an unusual creature
in the very beginning of the novel,"a white rabbit with
pink eyes." This strange white rabbit is also wearing a
waistcoat and carrying a pocketwatch (Ch. 1:1-2). It is also
capable of speech, saying "Oh, dear! I shall be too late"
(Ch. 1:1). This animal leads her to the Other World. The White
Rabbit is only one of the many magical, intelligent creatures
that ALice encounters in this strange world; she also meets a
mouse, a caterpillar, and a Cheshire cat, to name a few. In each
instance, these animals possess unusual, humanlike abilites and
intellect. The Cheshire cat "[vanishes] quite slowly, beginning
with the end of the tail, and ending with a grin" (Ch. 6:66).
In the novel Yvain, orThe Knight of the
Lion, the hero also encounters several mystic animals as
he embarks on his quest. The most important animal of all (for
whom he is named) is undoubtedly the remarkable lion that he
bravely rescues from a fire-spitting serpent. The knight is traveling
through a deep forest when he comes upon an awesome sight: a
fire-spitting serpent holding a lion by the tail. Yvain slaughters
the serpent and earns the esteem and gratitude of the lion, which
accompanies him on his quest, providing him with fresh game and
guarding his sleep at night. This lion demonstrates fantastic,
humanlike qualities. For example, when he saves the lion, it
"rises on [its] hind feet / and [joins] its forepaws in
complete / submissiveness, and then it [spreads] / [its] forepaws
out and [bows] its head" (li. 3205-3208). This sensitive
beast is even human enough in its capabilities to attempt suicide
when it mistakenly thinks that its master is dead because of
an accidental cut by a sword. It takes the same sword in its
teeth, "[lays] it on a fallen tree, / and [props] the sword
up carefully / against another tree trunk, lest / it slip back
when he hurled his breast / against it" (li. 3322-3327).
These abilites indicate that the animal belongs in the realm
of the magic Other World.
Another Celtic motif that surfaces in both novels
is the importance of an Otherworldly queen. In Carroll's novel,
Alice encounters the King and Queen of Hearts, and it appears
that the tyrannical Queen has complete control over her husband.
The King has been rendered effectively impotent by her wrath,
and the Queen asserts her apparent power by constantly declaring,
"Off with her head!" in this Other World, however,
the Queen is not as strong as she appears to be. She is, along
with her courtiers, "only a pack of cards," and she
requires card soldiers for protection (Ch. 12:133). Queen Laudine
in Yvain is the very first Otherworldly queen that the
hero Yvain encounters, and she requires a youthful male husband
or lover to protect her and her lands. When her husband, the
Knight of the Fountain, is killed by Yvain, Yvain himself replaces
him as her protector. She, in contrast with the Queen of Hearts,
seems weak at first, but she quickly asserts control over Yvain
when he must journey abroad for a year. She declares that "if
[he] outstays a certain date, / [her] love for [him] will turn
to hate" (li. 2397-2398). Therefore, the Celtic motif of
an Otherworldly queen requiring a youthful protector is present
in both works.
The Celtic mythological motif of sacred springs
or other bodies of water as symbols of regeneration and rebirth
is expressed in both works. This motif or theme is definitely
more obvious in Yvain; the sacred spring or magic fountain
that the hero encounters in Broceliande forest is the means by
which he passes into a magic Other World. its function as a symbol
of rebirth is clearly illustrated when Yvain pours its sacred
water onto the magic stone at the end of his quest. he has lost
his wife Laudine's love after breaking his chivalric vow, and
he yearns to win back her affection and trust. He hopes to "cause
such thundering / such lightning, and such sheets of rain, /
that by necessity again, / he'd force the lady to make peace"
(li.6228-6231). The violent nature of these winds created by
the spring associates the magic spring with destruction (as a
precursor to rebirth). The rebirth of Yvain's chivalry occurs,
which is both spiritual and moral in nature. The hero is no longer
selfish; he has proven his worth as a knight of chivalric value.
he has been "baptized," in a sense, by the magic waters
of the spring.
In Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, the
sacred spring or water motif is an important symbol of rebirth.
When the heroine Alice first arrives in Wonderland, the magic
Other World, she longs to gain access to a beautiful garden,
but the door to this garden is very small in comparison with
her large body. She happens to discover a magic potion and magic
food, which uncontrollably alter her size, much to her dismay.
She cries in desperation, and then grows smaller in size. She
nearly drowns in a pool of her own tears, but this "tear
bath" symbolizes her rebirth in a strange, new world. This
spring has magically released her from the underground chamber
in which she was trapped; it is likely that the water could symbolize
her own birth fluid and origin of life itself. This rebirth is
connected with her possible destruction, as in Yvain ,
and she fears that this predicament may "end in [her] going
out altogether, like a candle" (Ch. 1:8). As she struggles
to swim, she chides herself for having cried so much and fears
that she "shall be punished for it now, by being drowned
in [her] own tears" (Ch. 2:16). The previous examples prove
that this Celtic sacred water motif (associated with Arthurian
romances) is present in both novels.
The importance of chivalric values and courtly
behaviour is yet another Celtic motif that is vital to the work
of Chretien and Carroll. This theme is fairly obvious to most
readers of Yvain, orThe Knight of the Lion, which
is due to the novel's title. As a knight, the hero is constantly
observing the proper love and fighting etiquette, the proper
way of speaking, the proper way to protect the innocent and helpless,
and, of course, the proper way to exhibit bravery and courage.
Yvain seems to undergo a rebirth in the second half of the novel,
which stems from his encounter with the spring. As a result,
he demonstrates the proper chivalric values in his struggle against
Count Alier, in the defense of his faithful helper, Lunette,
against her three accusers, in the defeat of the giant Harpin
of the Mountain, and in combat with the "sons of the devil"
in the Castle of Infinite Misfortune. One particular quote that
embodies his regained chivalry is, "I don't refuse. I claim
/ a life of ease wins no man fame, and so I promise to defend
/ her cause" (li. 4863-4866). This is in response to the
request of his defense of the younger of the two sisters who
is fighting for her rightful share of her father's inheritance,
and this fight symbolizes courtly values.
In Alice's Adventures in Wonderland , Carroll
stresses the importance of certain chivalric values, translated
in his time as Victorian bourgeois virtues. Alice is a young,
bourgeois girl who observes proper manners, demonstrates courageous
behaviour, and exhibits generosity and kindness. She observes
the Victorian ideal of speaking eloquently and appropriately
when she responds to the Mad Hatter's curt remark about her hair
at the Tea Party, telling him that he "should learn not
to make personal remarks; it's very rude" (Ch. 7:68). When
Alice finds herself trapped in the pool of her tears with the
Mouse, she is very concerned about addressing the creature properly,
calling him "O Mouse" (Ch. 2:17). She is invariably
self-controlled and polite, whereas all the other inhabitants
of the Other World are unsocial eccentrics. She also demonstrates
immense courage when she stands up to the Queen at the trial;
she responds to Her Majesty's cry of "Off with her head!"
by declaring, "You're nothing but a pack of cards"
(Ch. 12:133). Her kindness is illustrated through such chivalric
actions as defending the Duchess' pig-baby, listening to the
Mock-Turtle's story with sympathy and patience, and assuring
the poor Dormouse when it gets trapped in the pool of tears.
Wonderland, in essence, appears to be a closed universe ruled
by elaborate conventions of chivalry, with monarchies, nobilities,
courts of justice, duels and rituals that recall the Middle Ages
and the Arthurian romances of Chretien de Troyes.
WORKS CITED
Carroll, Lewis. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. New
York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1965.
Chretien de Troyes. Yvain; or The Knight with the Lion.
Trans. Ruth Harwood Cline.
Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1975.
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ESSAY 2:
A Philosophical
Criticism of Augustine and Aquinas:
The Relationship of Soul and Body |
The relationship of the human soul and physical
body is a topic that has mystified philosophers, scholars, scientists,
and mankind as a whole for centuries. Human beings, who are always
concerned about their place as individuals in this world, have
attempted to determine the precise nature or state of the physical
form. They are concerned for their well-being in this earthly
environment, as well as their spiritual well-being; and most
have been perturbed by the suggestion that they cannot escape
the wrongs they have committed while in their physical bodies.
Throughout the evolution of philosophic thought,
there have been many different views on the relationship of mind
and body. The great philosopher Plato and the Neoplatonists held
the belief that man's body is merely a prison of his soul, but
St. Augustine later refutes this with his idea of the disembodied
soul. He distinguishes between the concept of the physical form
and the spiritual soul, and he argues that humankind can be redeemed
because of the God spirit contained in the intellectual soul.
This intellectual soul is not an inseparable part of the body,
as St. Thomas Aquinas postulates. Instead, this soul is indeed
the higher part of man, the state and well-being of man depends
upon its stability.
St. Thomas Aquinas adjusts this theory. He claims
that the soul and body are inseparable, and he states that the
soul is the form of the body. St. Thomas further believes that
God creates the soul and matter (physical body) simultaneously,
and the body affects the nature of that soul. His conception
of redemption is distinctly different from Augustine; he argues
that the body directly affects and acts upon the soul, so that
all earthly (bodily) sins decrease the possibility of redemption.
I will focus on proving the worth of Augustine's view of the
soul and body relationship, with its consequent effect on redemption.
The Augustinean theory's strength lies in its focus, which is
more on spiritual matters and less on nature. I believe that
the Thomistic view reveals that the very order of nature itself
makes the goal of redemption unattainable; Augustine stresses
the importance of the intellect part of the soul and man's will
in obtaining redemption.
St. Augustine's view of the relationship between
the physical body and the intellectual soul places primary focus
on the independence rather than the interdependence of the two.
He argues that God produces the intellectual soul prior to its
entrance into the human body; thus intellectual souls have an
absolute nature unrelated to matter, which enables humans to
find redemption through the soul despite past sins.
He offers many reasons for his argument. The image
of God is implanted in man's intellectual soul, which is created
before the body. Augustine states that the soul is the "higher
part of man" (D'Arcy,230), and the source of all movements,
including sense perceptions (Leary,52). He sees this "higher
part" as the life of the body; God is the life of this soul,
and truth is God. It stands to reason, therefore, that the intellectual
soul is bestowed its strength from truth. Because truth resides
in the intellect part of the soul, the desire of this soul determines
the direction in which the will moves (Hoffecker,89), independent
of the physical body. It follows that the independence of the
soul from the body attributes to free will in mankind. Human
beings can choose to misuse free will by pursuing "temporal"
goods instead of "eternal" goods, or spiritual matters
within the soul that will strengthen it and allow humans to be
redeemed of their bodily sins (Babcock,14). Augustine continues
in his analysis by claiming that redemption is achievable in
his view of soul and body because man's intellect part of his
soul will allow him to "possess" God and unify soul
and body in Heaven.
It is fitting to conclude the summation of Augustine's
argument with this statement, "The body is not for the soul,
but the soul is for the body" (D'Arcy,229). This expresses
the central thought that possessed the philosopher, and this
differs with his philosophic descendent, St. Thomas Aquinas.
St. Thomas believes that "the soul is the form of the body"
(Hoffecker,104).
St. Thomas Aquinas perceives the relationship of
the physical form and the intellectual soul in a different light.
His argument concentrates on the concept of the individuation
of the soul through physical matter. He argues that God produces
the soul and the body at the same time; therefore the human body
affects and acts upon the soul, enabling the actions of the body
to taint the soul. Human beings with tainted souls, integral
to their physical bodies, are less likely to receive redemption.
He gives several reasons for this argument. St.
Thomas views matter as the soul's "passive principle of
individuation." This matter facilitates a "multiplicity
of souls" that are distinct from each other. Through the
form of the soul and God Himself, the intellectual soul receives
its individuation (Maurer,243). Therefore, God endows each soul
with a distinct mark and character, and once this occurs, its
individuation depends upon the capacity of the physical body.
St. Thomas follows this aspect of his theory with the logical
conclusion (drawn from reason) that there is "no body apart
from the soul" (Aquinas,16). Because these two parts of
man are inseparable, man is motivated by God's grace (through
the soul component) and good works or deeds (through the body).
God, through the process of providence, "directs" and
moves the powers of every human being to his or her actions,
and because the body acts upon the soul, He predestines those
who use the body to pursue earthly desires to not receive redemption
(Hoffecker,108).
St. Thomas' concept of the relationship between
the intellectual soul and physical body, and this concept's relevance
to the subject of redemption are further illustrated by these
words:
Aquinas' assertion
was that man is a union of body and soul in the
Aristotelian sense.
Soul is the form of the body; it marks it distinctly.
Human beings are distinguished...by
their rationality, which is proof
of their immortality
(Hoffecker,104).
Through his use of reason and synthetic thinking, St. Thomas
offers his proof for this theory of the relationship of the intellectual
soul of man and the physical form or body of man; he is expounding
his concept of the individuation of souls by matter.
After careful observation of both views of this
intriguing topic, I must support St. Augustine's theory. His
concept of the creation of the soul before the physical body
and its primary importance over the body is not only radical;
it is entirely feasible, in my opinion. I would like to believe
that we, as human beings, have a certain amount of free will
to redeem our past discretions, and so I prefer this theory that
focuses on the spiritual matters involving the intellectual soul.
St. Augustine's view is appealing to me because of his unfailing
sense of charity; he wishes to instruct us in the nature of the
soul because he knows firsthand the temptation of earthly desires
and sin. He should be admired in his distinction of the revelation
of truth as the defining characteristic of the intellectual soul;
this revelation seems convincing in its confirmation that truth
is God Himself. I believe that the very concept that we, as mere
human beings, are brought closer to Him by this presence of truth
(in our souls) is enough to convince me that Augustine's theory
is more capable of instructing us on the path of redemption.
In conclusion, this analysis has concerned the
seemingly indistinguishable relationship between the human intellectual
soul and the physical body. St. Augustine states that God produces
the soul prior to its entrance into the body; thus intellectual
souls are separate from the body, containg truth, which enables
humans to be redeemed. St. Thomas Aquinas argues that soul and
body are created simultaneously and are inseparable, therefore
redemption is dependent upon bodily acts and a process of predestination.
I believe that Augustine's theory with respect to redemption
is more accessible because of its focus on spiritual matters
(as opposed to the Thomistic focus on theological science and
nature), and especially because of its focus on truth within
the soul. Mankind must seek truth within the intellectual soul
in order to achieve redemption.
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WORKS CITED
M.C. D'Arcy, S.J. et al. A Monument to St. Augustine: essays
on some
aspects of his
thought written in commemoration of his 15th centenary.
Sheed and Ward, Ltd.,
London : 1945.
Rev. D.J. Leary. St. Augustine on Eternal Life. Burns,
Oates and Washbourne,
Ltd., London : 1939.
W. Andrew Hoffecker. Building a Christian World View, vol.
1: God,
man, and Knowledge.
Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co.,
Phillipsburg, New Jersey
: 1986.
William S. Babcock. The Ethics of St. Augustine: JRE
Studies in Religion,
no. 3. Scholars
Press, Atlanta : 1991.
Armand Maurer. Being and Knowing: Studies in Thomas Aquinas
and
Later Medieval
Philosophers, Papers in Mediæval Studies, no. 10.
Pontifical Institute
of Mediæval Studies, Toronto : 1990.
Thomas Aquinas. Faith, Reason and Theology. Armand
Maurer,translator.
Mediæval
Sources in Translation, vol. 32. Pontifical Institute
of
Mediæval Studies,
Toronto : 1987.
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